MA Political Science (MPS) · 16 pages · English + हिन्दी
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Exam notes for MA Political Science, built from the trend of nine official IGNOU papers. Topics are ordered by how often they were asked, and each one gives the core argument, the thinkers and events to cite, and a 20-mark answer frame.
एम.ए. राजनीति विज्ञान के परीक्षा नोट्स, नौ आधिकारिक IGNOU प्रश्नपत्रों के ट्रेंड पर आधारित। टॉपिक इस क्रम में हैं कि वे कितनी बार पूछे गए, और हर टॉपिक में मूल तर्क, विचारक, घटनाएँ और 20 अंकों के उत्तर की रूपरेखा है।
Papers analysed: June 2022, December 2022, June 2023, December 2023, June 2024, December 2024, June 2025, December 2025, June 2026 (9 papers)
Every paper had two sections of five questions; students answer five, with at least two from each section, in about 500 words each. Short-notes questions (two notes of 10 marks) appeared in most papers since December 2024. Section I usually covers theories and the post-Cold War order; Section II covers terrorism, ethnicity, technology, nuclear issues and the great powers.
हर प्रश्नपत्र में पाँच-पाँच प्रश्नों के दो भाग थे; पाँच उत्तर, हर भाग से कम-से-कम दो, लगभग 500 शब्दों में। दिसम्बर 2024 से अधिकांश प्रश्नपत्रों में संक्षिप्त टिप्पणियाँ (10-10 अंक) आईं। भाग I में प्रायः सिद्धान्त और शीत युद्धोत्तर व्यवस्था; भाग II में आतंकवाद, नृजातीयता, तकनीक, परमाणु मुद्दे और महाशक्तियाँ।
Recent papers repeat heavily: the neo-liberal and realist approaches, the IMF and World Bank, challenges to the nation-state, the global fight against terrorism, the USA's post-Cold War challenges, China's rise, science and technology, transnational religious movements and self-determination each came back two to four times.
हाल के प्रश्नपत्र बहुत दोहराते हैं: नव-उदार और यथार्थवादी उपागम, IMF और विश्व बैंक, राष्ट्र-राज्य की चुनौतियाँ, आतंकवाद के विरुद्ध वैश्विक संघर्ष, अमेरिका की चुनौतियाँ, चीन का उदय, विज्ञान और तकनीक, पारराष्ट्रीय धार्मिक आंदोलन और आत्मनिर्णय।
| Topic / टॉपिक | Papers (of 9) / प्रश्नपत्र | Sessions / सत्र |
|---|---|---|
| Post-Cold War order: USA, China, India, nation-state / शीत युद्धोत्तर व्यवस्था | 9/9 | Every paper |
| Theories and approaches / सिद्धान्त और उपागम | 8/9 | All except Jun 24 |
| Global political economy / वैश्विक राजनीतिक अर्थव्यवस्था | 8/9 | All except Dec 25 |
| Ethnicity, self-determination, diaspora, religion / नृजातीयता, आत्मनिर्णय | 5/9 | Jun 23, Dec 23, Dec 24, Dec 25, Jun 26 |
| Environment and development / पर्यावरण और विकास | 5/9 | Dec 22, Dec 23, Jun 25, Dec 25, Jun 26 |
| Science and technology / विज्ञान और तकनीक | 5/9 | Jun 22, Dec 22, Jun 24, Dec 24, Dec 25 |
| Terrorism and intervention / आतंकवाद और हस्तक्षेप | 4/9 | Dec 22, Dec 23, Dec 24, Jun 26 |
| Human security, justice, human rights / मानव सुरक्षा, न्याय | 4/9 | Jun 22, Jun 23, Jun 25, Dec 25 |
| Nuclear non-proliferation and disarmament / परमाणु अप्रसार | 3/9 | Jun 24, Jun 25, Jun 26 |
| Regional cooperation / क्षेत्रीय सहयोग | 3/9 | Jun 23, Dec 23, Dec 24 |
Counts are papers, not questions. The appendix lists every question by session. Figures on current events change; verify recent developments before quoting them.
Study plan / अध्ययन योजना: Topics 1–3 appeared in eight or nine of nine papers and cover most of Section I. Topics 4–8 supply Section II. Learn 9 and 10 for short notes.
टॉपिक 1–3 नौ में से आठ या नौ प्रश्नपत्रों में आए और भाग I का अधिकांश हिस्सा हैं। टॉपिक 4–8 भाग II के लिए। 9 और 10 संक्षिप्त टिप्पणियों के लिए।
9 of 9 papers. USA: challenges after the Cold War (Dec 2022, Jun 2026), status in the hierarchy of power (Dec 2023), changing hegemony and role (Jun 2025, Dec 2024 note); China as economic power or superpower (Jun 2022, Jun 2024, Dec 2025) and military modernisation (Jun 2025 note); New World Order and India (Jun 2023, Jun 2024), India's challenges (Dec 2024), India's UN Security Council claim (Jun 2024); middle and emerging powers (Jun 2023, Jun 2024); challenges to the nation-state (Dec 2022, Dec 2024 note, Jun 2026); post-Cold War challenges to peace and global politics (Dec 2023, Dec 2025); changing world order and New Cold War (Jun 2022, Jun 2025 notes).
From bipolarity to a contested order. The Cold War (1947–1991) was a bipolar contest between the US and the USSR. Its end produced a unipolar moment of US primacy, announced as a "New World Order" (President George H. W. Bush, 1990–91), with liberal democracy and markets spreading (Francis Fukuyama's "end of history" thesis). Since then the order has moved towards multipolarity: the rise of China, Russia's resurgence, emerging powers (India, Brazil), and non-state threats. Many now speak of a New Cold War, mainly US–China rivalry in trade, technology and the Indo-Pacific, and US/Europe–Russia tension after the Ukraine war (2022).
USA: status and challenges. Strengths: the largest military and defence budget, a large economy, the dollar's reserve role, alliances (NATO, East Asian allies), technological and cultural ("soft") power. Challenges: the rise of China; terrorism after 9/11 (2001) and costly wars in Afghanistan and Iraq; "imperial overstretch"; the 2008 financial crisis; Russia's challenge; domestic polarisation and retreat from multilateralism; and declining legitimacy of its hegemony. Debate: decline (relative) vs continued primacy.
China's rise. Since Deng Xiaoping's reforms (1978), China grew rapidly, joined the WTO (2001), became the world's second-largest economy (overtaking Japan around 2010) and the largest trading nation. The Belt and Road Initiative (2013) extends its influence. Military modernisation: large defence budgets, a blue-water navy, missiles, space and cyber capabilities, and reforms of the People's Liberation Army from 2015. Whether it is a "superpower" is debated: limits include demographic ageing, slowing growth, technology restrictions and fewer allies.
India in the new order. India responded with economic reform (1991), the "Look East", later "Act East" policy, strategic partnerships with the US (the 2008 civil nuclear deal), the Quad, and multi-alignment while keeping strategic autonomy. Challenges: China (border, trade deficit), Pakistan and cross-border terrorism, energy security, an unstable neighbourhood, and balancing between powers. UN Security Council claim: India is the most populous country, a large democracy and economy, a major troop contributor to UN peacekeeping, and a founding member of the UN; with Brazil, Germany and Japan (the G4) it seeks permanent seats. Obstacles: opposition from the "Uniting for Consensus" group, disagreement over the veto, and the need for P5 consent to Charter amendment.
Middle powers vs emerging powers. Middle powers (Canada, Australia, the Netherlands) are established, mostly Western states with moderate capability that favour multilateralism, mediation and "niche" diplomacy and support the existing order. Emerging powers (China, India, Brazil, South Africa, often grouped in BRICS) are rising states whose growing capabilities let them seek greater influence and reform of global institutions. The idea has "relocated" from Western middle powers to Southern emerging powers.
Challenges to the nation-state. Globalisation and mobile capital limit economic sovereignty; international institutions and law constrain policy; transnational corporations, NGOs and terrorist networks act across borders; ethnic and secessionist movements challenge unity; migration and refugees test borders; and global problems (climate change, pandemics, cyber threats) need collective action. Yet the state remains the central actor, as the response to COVID-19 showed.
द्विध्रुवीयता से विवादित व्यवस्था: शीत युद्ध (1947–1991) अमेरिका और सोवियत संघ के बीच द्विध्रुवीय प्रतिस्पर्धा था। उसके अंत के बाद अमेरिकी प्रधानता का एकध्रुवीय क्षण, "नई विश्व व्यवस्था" (जॉर्ज एच. डब्ल्यू. बुश, 1990–91), फ़ुकुयामा का "इतिहास का अंत"। फिर बहुध्रुवीयता की ओर: चीन का उदय, रूस का पुनरुत्थान, उभरती शक्तियाँ और गैर-राज्य ख़तरे। अब नया शीत युद्ध: मुख्यतः अमेरिका-चीन प्रतिद्वंद्विता, और यूक्रेन युद्ध (2022) के बाद रूस से तनाव।
अमेरिका: शक्तियाँ: सबसे बड़ी सेना, बड़ी अर्थव्यवस्था, डॉलर, गठबंधन, सॉफ़्ट पावर। चुनौतियाँ: चीन का उदय; 9/11 (2001) के बाद आतंकवाद और अफ़ग़ानिस्तान-इराक युद्ध; "साम्राज्यवादी अति-विस्तार"; 2008 का वित्तीय संकट; रूस; आंतरिक ध्रुवीकरण और बहुपक्षवाद से पीछे हटना।
चीन का उदय: देंग शियाओपिंग के सुधार (1978), WTO (2001), लगभग 2010 से दूसरी सबसे बड़ी अर्थव्यवस्था, बेल्ट एंड रोड (2013)। सैन्य आधुनिकीकरण: बड़ा रक्षा बजट, नौसेना, मिसाइल, अंतरिक्ष और साइबर, 2015 से PLA सुधार। सीमाएँ: वृद्ध होती जनसंख्या, धीमी वृद्धि, तकनीकी प्रतिबंध।
नई व्यवस्था में भारत: आर्थिक सुधार (1991), "पूर्व की ओर देखो" फिर "पूर्व की ओर कार्य", अमेरिका से रणनीतिक साझेदारी (2008 परमाणु समझौता), क्वाड, रणनीतिक स्वायत्तता के साथ बहु-संरेखण। चुनौतियाँ: चीन, पाकिस्तान और सीमा-पार आतंकवाद, ऊर्जा सुरक्षा, अस्थिर पड़ोस। सुरक्षा परिषद दावा: सबसे अधिक जनसंख्या, बड़ा लोकतंत्र और अर्थव्यवस्था, शांति सेनाओं में बड़ा योगदान, संस्थापक सदस्य; G4 (ब्राज़ील, जर्मनी, जापान के साथ)। बाधाएँ: "युनाइटिंग फ़ॉर कंसेंसस" समूह, वीटो पर असहमति, P5 की सहमति।
मध्यम बनाम उभरती शक्तियाँ: मध्यम शक्तियाँ (कनाडा, ऑस्ट्रेलिया) स्थापित, बहुपक्षवाद और मध्यस्थता की समर्थक; उभरती शक्तियाँ (चीन, भारत, ब्राज़ील, दक्षिण अफ़्रीका; BRICS) बढ़ती क्षमता से अधिक प्रभाव और संस्थागत सुधार चाहती हैं।
राष्ट्र-राज्य की चुनौतियाँ: वैश्वीकरण, अंतरराष्ट्रीय संस्थाएँ, बहुराष्ट्रीय निगम, NGO और आतंकी नेटवर्क, पृथकतावादी आंदोलन, प्रवास, जलवायु और महामारी; फिर भी राज्य केंद्रीय कर्ता बना हुआ है।
8 of 9 papers. Realism (Dec 2024, Jun 2025, Dec 2025); neo-liberal approach (Dec 2022, Jun 2026); Marxist and radical or neo-radical approaches (Jun 2022, Dec 2024, Jun 2025, Jun 2026); feminist approach and critique of realism (Dec 2023, Dec 2024, Dec 2025 note); post-modernism (Jun 2023, Jun 2025); post-colonial theory (Jun 2022; Dec 2025 note); key concepts (Jun 2022); Gandhi and Tagore as humanists (Dec 2022).
Realism. Classical realists (Thucydides, Machiavelli, Hobbes; E. H. Carr's The Twenty Years' Crisis, 1939; Hans Morgenthau's Politics Among Nations, 1948) hold that states are the main actors, the system is anarchic (no world government), states pursue national interest defined in terms of power, and morality must yield to prudence. Morgenthau's six principles include objective laws rooted in human nature and the autonomy of the political sphere. Neo-realism (Kenneth Waltz, Theory of International Politics, 1979) explains behaviour by the structure of the system and the distribution of capabilities; states seek security, balance against threats, and care about relative gains. Key concepts: power, security dilemma, balance of power, deterrence.
Neo-liberal approach (neo-liberal institutionalism). Robert Keohane and Joseph Nye (Power and Interdependence, 1977) described complex interdependence: multiple channels between societies, no fixed hierarchy of issues, and declining usefulness of force. Keohane (After Hegemony, 1984) argued that international institutions and regimes reduce transaction costs and uncertainty, so states cooperate for absolute gains even under anarchy. Related ideas: the democratic peace and economic interdependence as a source of peace.
Marxist and radical approaches. They see international relations as shaped by global capitalism and class. Lenin's theory of imperialism; dependency theory (Raúl Prebisch's centre–periphery model, André Gunder Frank's "development of underdevelopment"); Immanuel Wallerstein's world-systems theory (core, semi-periphery, periphery); Johan Galtung's structural theory of imperialism; and critical theory (Robert Cox: theory is always for someone and for some purpose; Gramscian hegemony at the world level). Main assumptions: economic structures shape politics, inequality between North and South is systemic, and states serve dominant class interests.
Feminist approaches. They reveal how IR's concepts (power, security, the state) are gendered. J. Ann Tickner reformulated Morgenthau's principles from a feminist view, and Cynthia Enloe (Bananas, Beaches and Bases, 1989) showed women's roles in international politics. Feminist critique of realism: realism's "rational, autonomous" state reflects masculine values; it ignores women's experience and everyday insecurity (violence, poverty); security should be redefined as human security. On the state, feminists see it as patriarchal, built on a public/private split and on militarised masculinity.
Post-modernism. Influenced by Foucault and Derrida (Richard Ashley, R. B. J. Walker, James Der Derian): there is no neutral, objective knowledge; knowledge and power are linked; IR's "truths" (sovereignty, anarchy) are discourses to be deconstructed; it questions grand narratives and the inside/outside division between domestic and international. Post-colonial theory (drawing on Edward Said's Orientalism, 1978, Gayatri Spivak and Homi Bhabha) exposes Eurocentrism in IR, the continuing effects of colonialism, and the silencing of non-Western voices.
Gandhi and Tagore as humanists. Both rejected narrow nationalism and power politics in favour of universal humanity. Tagore (Nationalism, lectures of 1917) criticised the nation-state as a machine of organised greed and power and sought cultural cooperation between East and West. Gandhi based politics on truth and non-violence and saw nationalism as compatible with internationalism. They differed on methods: Tagore criticised non-cooperation and the burning of foreign cloth as narrow, while Gandhi saw them as necessary for self-respect and swaraj.
Key concepts. Power, national interest, sovereignty, security, anarchy, balance of power, interdependence, hegemony, international regimes and order.
यथार्थवाद: शास्त्रीय (थ्यूसिडाइडीज़, मैकियावेली, हॉब्स; ई. एच. कार, 1939; मॉर्गेन्थाउ, 1948): राज्य मुख्य कर्ता, व्यवस्था अराजक, शक्ति के रूप में परिभाषित राष्ट्रीय हित, नैतिकता पर विवेक। मॉर्गेन्थाउ के छह सिद्धान्त। नव-यथार्थवाद (केनेथ वॉल्ट्ज़, 1979): व्यवस्था की संरचना और क्षमताओं का वितरण; सुरक्षा, संतुलन, सापेक्ष लाभ। अवधारणाएँ: शक्ति, सुरक्षा दुविधा, शक्ति संतुलन, निवारण।
नव-उदार उपागम: कोहेन और नाय (1977): जटिल परस्पर निर्भरता; कोहेन (1984): अंतरराष्ट्रीय संस्थाएँ और व्यवस्थाएँ अनिश्चितता घटाती हैं, इसलिए अराजकता में भी निरपेक्ष लाभ के लिए सहयोग। लोकतांत्रिक शांति।
मार्क्सवादी और उग्र उपागम: लेनिन का साम्राज्यवाद; निर्भरता सिद्धान्त (प्रेबिश का केंद्र-परिधि, फ़्रैंक); वालरस्टीन की विश्व-व्यवस्था; गाल्टुंग; आलोचनात्मक सिद्धान्त (रॉबर्ट कॉक्स)। मान्यताएँ: आर्थिक संरचनाएँ राजनीति तय करती हैं, उत्तर-दक्षिण असमानता व्यवस्थागत है।
नारीवादी उपागम: शक्ति, सुरक्षा और राज्य जैसी अवधारणाएँ जेंडरित हैं; जे. एन टिकनर, सिंथिया एनलो (1989)। यथार्थवाद की आलोचना: "तार्किक, स्वायत्त" राज्य पुरुषवादी मूल्यों को दर्शाता है; स्त्रियों के अनुभव और दैनिक असुरक्षा की उपेक्षा; सुरक्षा की नई परिभाषा: मानव सुरक्षा। राज्य पितृसत्तात्मक है।
उत्तर-आधुनिकतावाद: फ़ूको और देरिदा से प्रभावित (एशले, वॉकर, डेर डेरियन): तटस्थ ज्ञान नहीं; ज्ञान और शक्ति जुड़े हैं; संप्रभुता और अराजकता विमर्श हैं जिनका विखंडन हो। उत्तर-औपनिवेशिक सिद्धान्त (एडवर्ड सईद, 1978; स्पिवाक; भाभा): IR में यूरोप-केंद्रिकता और औपनिवेशिक प्रभाव।
मानवतावादी गांधी और टैगोर: दोनों ने संकीर्ण राष्ट्रवाद और शक्ति-राजनीति का विरोध किया। टैगोर (नेशनलिज़्म, 1917): राष्ट्र-राज्य संगठित लोभ और शक्ति की मशीन; गांधी: सत्य और अहिंसा, राष्ट्रवाद अंतरराष्ट्रीयतावाद के अनुकूल। मतभेद: टैगोर ने असहयोग और विदेशी वस्त्र दहन को संकीर्ण कहा।
8 of 9 papers. Globalisation (Jun 2022, Dec 2022, Jun 2024, Jun 2025 twice); IMF and World Bank and inequality (Dec 2022, Jun 2026); IBRD (Jun 2024); FDI vs portfolio investment (Jun 2023, Jun 2024); global corporatism and sovereignty (Dec 2022, Jun 2026 note); TNCs and human rights (Jun 2023); underdevelopment and centre–periphery (Jun 2022, Dec 2023); economic issues and contemporary economic relations (Dec 2024, Jun 2025); indicators of global inequality (Dec 2024 note); assumptions of liberalisation (Jun 2024); NGOs and social development (Jun 2022).
Globalisation. The growing integration of economies and societies through trade, finance, investment, technology, migration and culture. Post-Cold War phase vs earlier phases: earlier globalisation (for example 1870–1914) was driven by colonial trade and was partly reversed by war and depression; the post-1990 phase is distinguished by instant digital communication, global production chains, enormous financial flows, the integration of former socialist countries, and new governance through the WTO (1995). Support: growth, efficiency, technology transfer, poverty reduction in Asia. Criticism: inequality, loss of policy autonomy, financial crises (Asia 1997–98, global 2008), job insecurity, cultural homogenisation and environmental damage.
Liberalisation: underlying assumptions. Markets allocate resources efficiently; free trade benefits all through comparative advantage; private enterprise is more efficient than the state; capital flows promote growth; the state should provide a stable framework rather than direct production.
IMF and World Bank. Created at Bretton Woods (1944). The IMF supports monetary stability and lends to countries in balance-of-payments crises; the World Bank group, whose core is the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), first financed post-war reconstruction (its first loan went to France in 1947) and now lends for development to middle-income and creditworthy poorer countries, provides technical advice and supports projects in infrastructure, health, education and poverty reduction; the International Development Association (IDA) lends to the poorest on concessional terms. Role in inequality: they provide finance and expertise, but critics (including Joseph Stiglitz, Globalization and Its Discontents, 2002) argue that structural adjustment conditions (austerity, privatisation, trade liberalisation) in the 1980s–90s deepened poverty and inequality, and that voting power favours rich countries. Reforms since have added poverty reduction strategies and debt relief.
FDI vs portfolio investment. Foreign direct investment is long-term investment that gives lasting interest and management control in an enterprise (commonly 10% or more of voting shares); it brings technology, jobs and management skills. Portfolio investment is the purchase of shares and bonds without control; it is liquid, short-term and volatile ("hot money"), and can flee quickly in a crisis. Linkages: both respond to growth prospects and policy; portfolio inflows can fund firms that also attract FDI; but heavy reliance on portfolio flows raises the risk of sudden stops, as in the Asian crisis.
Global corporatism and TNCs. Transnational corporations control a large share of world trade and investment; together with states and international institutions they form a "global corporate" order. Impact on sovereignty: they shape policy through investment decisions, lobbying and the threat of relocation; bilateral investment treaties let them sue states; tax avoidance reduces state revenue. Accountability for human rights: cases from Bhopal (1984) to supply-chain abuses led to the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights (2011), voluntary codes and demands for a binding treaty.
Underdevelopment and the centre–periphery model. Prebisch argued that periphery countries exporting primary goods face declining terms of trade relative to industrial goods from the centre; dependency theorists argued that underdevelopment is produced by the world capitalist system, not by internal backwardness. Global inequality indicators: income and wealth shares, the Gini coefficient, GDP per head, the Human Development Index, poverty headcounts, and access to health and education.
वैश्वीकरण: व्यापार, वित्त, निवेश, तकनीक, प्रवास और संस्कृति से अर्थव्यवस्थाओं और समाजों का बढ़ता एकीकरण। शीत युद्धोत्तर बनाम पूर्व चरण: पहले का वैश्वीकरण (1870–1914) औपनिवेशिक व्यापार पर आधारित था और युद्धों से उलटा; 1990 के बाद त्वरित डिजिटल संचार, वैश्विक उत्पादन श्रृंखलाएँ, विशाल वित्तीय प्रवाह, पूर्व समाजवादी देशों का एकीकरण, WTO (1995)। समर्थन: संवृद्धि, दक्षता, तकनीक, एशिया में गरीबी में कमी। आलोचना: असमानता, नीतिगत स्वायत्तता का ह्रास, वित्तीय संकट (1997–98, 2008), नौकरी की असुरक्षा, सांस्कृतिक समरूपीकरण।
उदारीकरण की मान्यताएँ: बाज़ार कुशल आवंटन करता है, मुक्त व्यापार सबको लाभ देता है, निजी उद्यम अधिक कुशल है, पूँजी प्रवाह संवृद्धि बढ़ाता है।
IMF और विश्व बैंक: ब्रेटन वुड्स (1944)। IMF मौद्रिक स्थिरता और भुगतान-संतुलन संकट में ऋण; विश्व बैंक, जिसका केंद्र IBRD है, पहले युद्धोत्तर पुनर्निर्माण (पहला ऋण फ़्रांस, 1947), अब विकास ऋण, तकनीकी सलाह; IDA सबसे गरीब देशों को रियायती ऋण। आलोचना (स्टिग्लिट्ज़, 2002): संरचनात्मक समायोजन की शर्तों ने गरीबी और असमानता बढ़ाई; मताधिकार अमीर देशों के पक्ष में।
FDI बनाम पोर्टफ़ोलियो निवेश: प्रत्यक्ष विदेशी निवेश दीर्घकालीन, प्रबंधन नियंत्रण के साथ (प्रायः 10% या अधिक मताधिकार शेयर); तकनीक और रोज़गार। पोर्टफ़ोलियो निवेश नियंत्रण के बिना शेयर और बॉन्ड; अल्पकालीन और अस्थिर ("हॉट मनी")। संकट में अचानक निकासी का जोखिम।
वैश्विक निगमवाद और बहुराष्ट्रीय निगम: विश्व व्यापार और निवेश में बड़ा हिस्सा; निवेश निर्णयों, लॉबिंग और स्थानांतरण की धमकी से नीति पर प्रभाव; निवेश संधियों के तहत राज्यों पर मुकदमे; कर-परिहार। मानवाधिकार जवाबदेही: भोपाल (1984); UN मार्गदर्शक सिद्धान्त (2011)।
अल्पविकास और केंद्र-परिधि मॉडल: प्रेबिश: प्राथमिक वस्तुएँ निर्यात करने वाले परिधि देशों की व्यापार शर्तें गिरती हैं; निर्भरता सिद्धान्त। वैश्विक असमानता के संकेतक: आय और संपत्ति का हिस्सा, गिनी गुणांक, प्रति व्यक्ति GDP, HDI, गरीबी, स्वास्थ्य और शिक्षा तक पहुँच।
5 of 9 papers. Self-determination in multi-ethnic societies (Jun 2023, Dec 2024, Jun 2026); minorities in Central Asia after the USSR (Jun 2023) and inter-ethnic harmony there (Dec 2025); diaspora and transnational movements (Jun 2023, Dec 2023); ethnicity and ethnic movements after the war (Dec 2023); transnational religious movements (Dec 2024, Dec 2025, Jun 2026); indigenous movements (Dec 2025 note).
Self-determination. The right of peoples to determine their political status. It entered world politics with Woodrow Wilson after the First World War, was written into the UN Charter (Article 1(2)) and drove decolonisation (UN General Assembly Resolution 1514, 1960). In multi-ethnic societies it is contested: external self-determination (secession) threatens territorial integrity, so international law generally limits it to colonial peoples and extreme cases; internal self-determination (autonomy, federalism, minority rights, democratic participation) is the preferred route. Examples: Eritrea, East Timor and South Sudan gained independence; Catalonia and Kurdistan remain contested; Indian federalism and the Sixth Schedule show internal arrangements.
Ethnic movements after the Second World War. Ethnicity is identity based on shared descent, culture, language or religion. Reasons for the increase in ethnic movements: decolonisation left arbitrary borders; uneven development and competition for resources; democratisation gave groups a voice; modernisation and mass communication raised awareness; the end of the Cold War released suppressed identities (Yugoslavia, the former USSR); globalisation provoked defensive identities; and diasporas supplied support.
Central Asia after the USSR. The five republics (Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan) inherited Soviet-drawn borders that left minorities on the "wrong" side: large Russian populations (especially in Kazakhstan), Uzbeks in Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan, and others. Issues included language and citizenship policies favouring titular nationalities, emigration of Russians, clashes in the Fergana Valley (Osh in 1990 and 2010), and the Tajik civil war (1992–97). Steps to harmony: inclusive citizenship, minority language and cultural rights, fair representation, regional development, cross-border cooperation and dialogue (Kazakhstan's Assembly of the People is often cited).
Diaspora and transnational movements. Diasporas link homeland and host societies through remittances, lobbying, media and organisations. They can promote democracy and development or fund conflict and "long-distance nationalism" (for example Tamil, Sikh, Irish and Jewish diasporas in homeland politics).
Transnational religious movements. Movements that operate across borders on the basis of faith: Islamist networks (from the Muslim Brotherhood to militant jihadist groups), Christian evangelical and Pentecostal networks, the Catholic Church, Hindu, Buddhist and Sikh diaspora organisations, and transnational religious NGOs. Role in IR: they challenge the secular, state-centred view of IR; shape identities, humanitarian work and conflict; can mobilise for peace or violence; and influence foreign policy through lobbying. Indigenous movements organise across borders for land, cultural and self-government rights, recognised in the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (2007).
आत्मनिर्णय: लोगों का अपनी राजनीतिक स्थिति तय करने का अधिकार; वुडरो विल्सन, UN चार्टर (अनुच्छेद 1(2)), उपनिवेशवाद-उन्मूलन (प्रस्ताव 1514, 1960)। बहुनृजातीय समाजों में: बाह्य आत्मनिर्णय (पृथक्करण) प्रादेशिक अखंडता के लिए ख़तरा, इसलिए सीमित; आंतरिक आत्मनिर्णय (स्वायत्तता, संघवाद, अल्पसंख्यक अधिकार) पसंदीदा मार्ग। उदाहरण: इरिट्रिया, पूर्वी तिमोर, दक्षिण सूडान; कैटेलोनिया, कुर्दिस्तान; भारत की छठी अनुसूची।
द्वितीय विश्वयुद्ध के बाद नृजातीय आंदोलनों में वृद्धि के कारण: मनमानी औपनिवेशिक सीमाएँ, असमान विकास, लोकतंत्रीकरण, आधुनिकीकरण और जनसंचार, शीत युद्ध का अंत (यूगोस्लाविया, सोवियत संघ), वैश्वीकरण, डायस्पोरा का समर्थन।
सोवियत संघ के बाद मध्य एशिया: सोवियत सीमाओं से अल्पसंख्यक "ग़लत" ओर रह गए: कज़ाख़स्तान में रूसी, किर्गिज़स्तान और ताजिकिस्तान में उज़्बेक। समस्याएँ: भाषा और नागरिकता नीतियाँ, रूसियों का पलायन, फ़रग़ाना घाटी में संघर्ष (ओश, 1990 और 2010), ताजिक गृहयुद्ध (1992–97)। सद्भाव के उपाय: समावेशी नागरिकता, अल्पसंख्यक भाषा अधिकार, उचित प्रतिनिधित्व, क्षेत्रीय विकास, संवाद।
डायस्पोरा और पारराष्ट्रीय आंदोलन: प्रेषित धन, लॉबिंग और संगठनों से मातृभूमि और मेज़बान देश को जोड़ते हैं; लोकतंत्र और विकास को बढ़ा सकते हैं या संघर्ष और "दूरस्थ राष्ट्रवाद" को।
पारराष्ट्रीय धार्मिक आंदोलन: इस्लामी नेटवर्क, ईसाई इवैंजेलिकल, कैथोलिक चर्च, हिंदू, बौद्ध और सिख डायस्पोरा संगठन। IR में भूमिका: धर्मनिरपेक्ष, राज्य-केंद्रित दृष्टि को चुनौती; पहचान, मानवीय कार्य और संघर्ष; शांति या हिंसा के लिए लामबंदी। आदिवासी आंदोलन: भूमि, संस्कृति और स्वशासन के अधिकार; UN घोषणा (2007)।
5 of 9 papers. Environmental protection and development (Dec 2022, Dec 2025); North–South divide in the environmental crisis (Dec 2023); environment–development debate (Jun 2025; Jun 2026 note).
The debate. Developed countries industrialised by using fossil fuels and resources; developing countries argue they need space to grow and reduce poverty. Environmentalists warn that unlimited growth destroys ecosystems and the climate. The compromise idea is sustainable development (Brundtland Report, 1987). Milestones: the Stockholm Conference (1972), where Indira Gandhi linked poverty and pollution; the Rio Earth Summit (1992) with the climate (UNFCCC) and biodiversity conventions; the Kyoto Protocol (1997) with binding targets only for developed countries; and the Paris Agreement (2015) with nationally determined contributions from all. North–South divide: the South stresses historical responsibility, common but differentiated responsibilities, finance and technology transfer, and the right to development; the North stresses current emissions of large developing countries (China, India) and universal commitments. Issues include climate finance, carbon trading, "green" trade barriers and loss and damage.
बहस: विकसित देशों ने जीवाश्म ईंधन से औद्योगीकरण किया; विकासशील देशों को गरीबी घटाने के लिए विकास का अवसर चाहिए; पर्यावरणविद् असीमित संवृद्धि के विरुद्ध चेताते हैं। समझौता: सतत विकास (ब्रंटलैंड, 1987)। पड़ाव: स्टॉकहोम (1972; इंदिरा गांधी ने गरीबी और प्रदूषण को जोड़ा), रियो (1992; जलवायु और जैव विविधता अभिसमय), क्योटो (1997; केवल विकसित देशों पर बाध्यकारी लक्ष्य), पेरिस (2015; सबके राष्ट्रीय निर्धारित योगदान)। उत्तर-दक्षिण विभाजन: दक्षिण: ऐतिहासिक उत्तरदायित्व, साझा पर विभेदित उत्तरदायित्व, वित्त और तकनीक हस्तांतरण, विकास का अधिकार; उत्तर: चीन और भारत जैसे बड़े देशों का वर्तमान उत्सर्जन, सार्वभौमिक प्रतिबद्धता।
5 of 9 papers. Role of science and technology in IR (Jun 2022, Dec 2024, Dec 2025); S&T and international dependencies (Dec 2022); technology in the evolution of the international system (Jun 2024).
Technology has repeatedly transformed the international system: gunpowder and naval technology enabled European empires; the industrial revolution created great-power hierarchies; nuclear weapons produced deterrence and bipolar stability; satellites, ICT and the internet enabled globalisation. Roles today: a source of military power (nuclear, missiles, drones, cyber, artificial intelligence, space); a source of economic power and competition (semiconductors, 5G, AI; US–China "tech war" and export controls); a driver of interdependence and global communication; new security threats (cyber attacks, disinformation); and new governance problems (arms control, internet governance, data). Dependency: most research, patents and advanced technology are concentrated in the North; developing countries depend on imported technology, licences and intellectual property rules (TRIPS), which can widen gaps; responses include indigenous capability (India's space and nuclear programmes, digital public infrastructure) and South–South cooperation.
तकनीक ने अंतरराष्ट्रीय व्यवस्था को बार-बार बदला: बारूद और नौसैनिक तकनीक से यूरोपीय साम्राज्य; औद्योगिक क्रांति से महाशक्ति पदानुक्रम; परमाणु हथियारों से निवारण; उपग्रह, ICT और इंटरनेट से वैश्वीकरण। आज भूमिका: सैन्य शक्ति (परमाणु, मिसाइल, ड्रोन, साइबर, AI, अंतरिक्ष); आर्थिक प्रतिस्पर्धा (सेमीकंडक्टर, 5G; अमेरिका-चीन "तकनीक युद्ध"); परस्पर निर्भरता; नए ख़तरे (साइबर हमले, भ्रामक सूचना); नई शासन समस्याएँ। निर्भरता: शोध, पेटेंट और उन्नत तकनीक उत्तर में केंद्रित; विकासशील देश आयातित तकनीक और TRIPS पर निर्भर; उत्तर: स्वदेशी क्षमता (भारत का अंतरिक्ष और परमाणु कार्यक्रम) और दक्षिण-दक्षिण सहयोग।
4 of 9 papers. Global fight against terrorism (Dec 2022, Dec 2024, Jun 2026); international vs cross-border terrorism (Dec 2023); intervention and its varieties (Dec 2023).
Terrorism is the use or threat of violence against civilians to create fear and achieve political, religious or ideological aims; there is still no agreed UN definition. International terrorism involves actors, targets or networks across several countries (al-Qaeda's 9/11 attacks, ISIS); cross-border terrorism is launched from one state's territory into a neighbour's, often with support from state agencies (India cites Pakistan-based groups in Jammu and Kashmir and the 2008 Mumbai attacks). The global fight: UN Security Council Resolution 1373 (2001) obliged states to criminalise terrorist financing and cooperate; the US-led "global war on terror" (Afghanistan 2001, Iraq 2003); the UN Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy (2006); the Financial Action Task Force on terror financing; intelligence sharing and regional cooperation. India has pushed for a Comprehensive Convention on International Terrorism since 1996. Problems: definitional disputes ("one person's terrorist is another's freedom fighter"), double standards, state sponsorship, human-rights abuses in counter-terrorism, and root causes (conflict, alienation, poor governance).
Intervention is coercive interference by a state or group of states in another state's internal affairs. Varieties: (1) military intervention (invasion, air strikes); (2) humanitarian intervention to stop mass atrocities (Kosovo 1999), developed into the Responsibility to Protect (R2P; 2001 commission report, endorsed at the 2005 World Summit; applied in Libya 2011); (3) economic and political intervention (sanctions, aid conditionality, support for factions or regime change). It conflicts with sovereignty and non-intervention (UN Charter Article 2(7)) and is often criticised as selective.
आतंकवाद: राजनीतिक, धार्मिक या वैचारिक उद्देश्यों के लिए नागरिकों के विरुद्ध हिंसा या उसकी धमकी; UN में अब भी सर्वमान्य परिभाषा नहीं। अंतरराष्ट्रीय आतंकवाद: कई देशों में फैले कर्ता और नेटवर्क (9/11, ISIS); सीमा-पार आतंकवाद: एक राज्य के क्षेत्र से पड़ोसी में, प्रायः राज्य एजेंसियों के समर्थन से (भारत: जम्मू-कश्मीर, मुंबई 2008)। वैश्विक संघर्ष: सुरक्षा परिषद प्रस्ताव 1373 (2001); "आतंक के विरुद्ध युद्ध" (अफ़ग़ानिस्तान 2001, इराक 2003); UN वैश्विक रणनीति (2006); FATF; भारत का CCIT प्रस्ताव (1996 से)। समस्याएँ: परिभाषा विवाद, दोहरे मानदंड, राज्य प्रायोजन, मानवाधिकार उल्लंघन, मूल कारण।
हस्तक्षेप: किसी राज्य के आंतरिक मामलों में बलपूर्वक दख़ल। प्रकार: (1) सैन्य; (2) मानवीय (कोसोवो 1999), रक्षा का उत्तरदायित्व (R2P; 2001, 2005 शिखर सम्मेलन; लीबिया 2011); (3) आर्थिक और राजनीतिक (प्रतिबंध, शर्तें, सत्ता-परिवर्तन)। संप्रभुता और अहस्तक्षेप (अनुच्छेद 2(7)) से टकराव; चयनात्मकता की आलोचना।
4 of 9 papers. Justice in international relations (Jun 2022); human security agenda (Jun 2023; Jun 2025 and Dec 2025 notes); TNC accountability for human rights (Jun 2023, see topic 3).
Human security shifts the focus of security from the state to the individual. The UNDP's Human Development Report (1994) defined it as freedom from fear and freedom from want, with seven dimensions: economic, food, health, environmental, personal, community and political security. The international system it envisions: cooperative and multilateral; priority to people's protection over state power; prevention of conflict, poverty and disease; a role for international organisations, NGOs and civil society; acceptance of intervention to protect civilians (R2P). Prospects: strengthened by pandemics, climate change and refugee crises, but limited by great-power rivalry, sovereignty concerns and the risk of becoming too broad to guide policy.
Justice in IR. Realists see little room for justice in an anarchic system; cosmopolitans (Charles Beitz, Thomas Pogge) argue that principles of distributive justice should apply globally, so rich countries have duties to the global poor; communitarians limit justice to national communities. Related issues: just war theory, fair trade, debt relief, climate justice and international criminal justice (the International Criminal Court, 2002).
मानव सुरक्षा: सुरक्षा का ध्यान राज्य से व्यक्ति पर। UNDP मानव विकास रिपोर्ट (1994): भय से मुक्ति और अभाव से मुक्ति; सात आयाम: आर्थिक, खाद्य, स्वास्थ्य, पर्यावरणीय, व्यक्तिगत, सामुदायिक और राजनीतिक सुरक्षा। कल्पित अंतरराष्ट्रीय व्यवस्था: सहयोगी और बहुपक्षीय; राज्य-शक्ति से ऊपर लोगों की सुरक्षा; संघर्ष, गरीबी और रोग की रोकथाम; अंतरराष्ट्रीय संगठनों और नागरिक समाज की भूमिका; R2P। संभावनाएँ: महामारी, जलवायु और शरणार्थी संकट से बल; पर महाशक्ति प्रतिद्वंद्विता और संप्रभुता की चिंता से सीमित।
IR में न्याय: यथार्थवादी: अराजक व्यवस्था में न्याय की कम जगह; सर्वदेशीयतावादी (बीट्ज़, पोगे): वितरणात्मक न्याय वैश्विक स्तर पर लागू हो; समुदायवादी: राष्ट्रीय समुदायों तक सीमित। संबंधित: न्यायपूर्ण युद्ध, निष्पक्ष व्यापार, ऋण राहत, जलवायु न्याय, अंतरराष्ट्रीय आपराधिक न्यायालय (2002)।
3 of 9 papers. Evolution of the non-proliferation regime (Jun 2024, Jun 2025); NPT in the Cold War and problems of global disarmament (Jun 2026 notes).
Evolution. After the US bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki (1945) and the Soviet test (1949), the "Atoms for Peace" initiative led to the International Atomic Energy Agency (1957). The Partial Test Ban Treaty (1963) banned tests in the atmosphere, space and under water. The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (signed 1968, in force 1970) divided states into five recognised nuclear-weapon states (US, USSR/Russia, UK, France, China) and non-nuclear states, which renounced weapons in return for access to peaceful nuclear technology and a promise of disarmament (Article VI); it was extended indefinitely in 1995. Later pillars: the Nuclear Suppliers Group (1975), the Missile Technology Control Regime (1987), the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (1996, not in force), and US–Soviet/Russian arms-control treaties (SALT, INF, START). India's position: it rejected the NPT as discriminatory, tested in 1974 and 1998, declared a no-first-use doctrine, and gained a Nuclear Suppliers Group waiver in 2008 after the India–US civil nuclear deal. Problems of disarmament: the nuclear states' slow progress on Article VI, deterrence doctrines, regional rivalries (South Asia, Korea, the Middle East), verification difficulties, the collapse of some arms-control treaties, and new technologies.
विकास: हिरोशिमा-नागासाकी (1945) और सोवियत परीक्षण (1949) के बाद IAEA (1957); आंशिक परीक्षण प्रतिबंध संधि (1963); परमाणु अप्रसार संधि (1968 हस्ताक्षर, 1970 लागू): पाँच मान्य परमाणु शक्तियाँ और बाकी गैर-परमाणु देश जिन्होंने शांतिपूर्ण तकनीक और निरस्त्रीकरण के वादे (अनुच्छेद VI) के बदले हथियार छोड़े; 1995 में अनिश्चितकाल के लिए विस्तार। NSG (1975), MTCR (1987), CTBT (1996, लागू नहीं), SALT, INF, START। भारत: NPT को भेदभावपूर्ण माना, 1974 और 1998 में परीक्षण, पहले प्रयोग न करने का सिद्धान्त, 2008 में भारत-अमेरिका परमाणु समझौते के बाद NSG छूट। निरस्त्रीकरण की समस्याएँ: अनुच्छेद VI पर धीमी प्रगति, निवारण सिद्धान्त, क्षेत्रीय प्रतिद्वंद्विता, सत्यापन कठिनाई, संधियों का टूटना।
3 of 9 papers. Asian and African approaches to regional cooperation (Jun 2023, Dec 2023); regional economic groupings (Dec 2024 note).
Asian approach. Exemplified by ASEAN (1967): the "ASEAN Way" of consensus, informality, non-interference in internal affairs, gradualism and a focus on economic cooperation and confidence-building; wider frameworks such as the East Asia Summit and the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP). SAARC (1985) has been hampered by India–Pakistan tension. African approach. The Organisation of African Unity (1963) emphasised decolonisation, pan-African solidarity and non-interference; its successor, the African Union (2002), added a right to intervene in grave circumstances (war crimes, genocide, crimes against humanity), peer review of governance, and the African Continental Free Trade Area. Differences: Asia is more market-led and less institutionalised; Africa is more political and security-oriented, with stronger formal institutions but weaker economic integration. Regional economic groupings (EU, ASEAN, NAFTA/USMCA, Mercosur, AU) pool markets, raise bargaining power and manage interdependence.
एशियाई उपागम: आसियान (1967): "आसियान मार्ग": सहमति, अनौपचारिकता, आंतरिक मामलों में अहस्तक्षेप, क्रमिकता, आर्थिक सहयोग; पूर्वी एशिया शिखर सम्मेलन, RCEP; सार्क (1985) भारत-पाकिस्तान तनाव से बाधित। अफ़्रीकी उपागम: अफ़्रीकी एकता संगठन (1963): उपनिवेशवाद-विरोध, अखिल-अफ़्रीकी एकजुटता, अहस्तक्षेप; अफ़्रीकी संघ (2002): गंभीर स्थितियों में हस्तक्षेप का अधिकार, शासन की सहकर्मी समीक्षा, महाद्वीपीय मुक्त व्यापार क्षेत्र। अंतर: एशिया अधिक बाज़ार-नेतृत्व वाला और कम संस्थागत; अफ़्रीका अधिक राजनीतिक और सुरक्षा-उन्मुख। क्षेत्रीय आर्थिक समूह (EU, आसियान, USMCA, मर्कोसुर) बाज़ार जोड़ते और सौदेबाज़ी शक्ति बढ़ाते हैं।
Questions are summarised in a few words, not quoted. Sources: IGNOU question-paper archive (2022–2024) and ignou.ac.in (2024–2026).
| Session / सत्र | Section I | Section II |
|---|---|---|
| Jun 2022 | Key concepts; Marxist approach; centre–periphery model; post-colonial theory; globalisation | Notes: changing world order, balance of power; justice in IR; NGOs and social development; China as economic power; science and technology |
| Dec 2022 | Neo-liberal approach; Gandhi and Tagore as humanists; challenges to the nation-state; IMF and World Bank and inequality; environment and development | Global fight against terrorism; S&T and dependencies; global corporatism and sovereignty; US challenges after the Cold War; post-Cold War globalisation |
| Jun 2023 | Post-modernism; Asian and African regional cooperation; middle and emerging powers; New World Order and India; FDI vs portfolio investment | Self-determination in multi-ethnic societies; TNCs and human rights; minorities in Central Asia; diaspora and transnational movements; human security |
| Dec 2023 | Feminist view of the state; theory of underdevelopment; North–South environmental divide; Asian and African regional cooperation; post-Cold War challenges to peace | Intervention; international vs cross-border terrorism; US in the power hierarchy; diaspora; ethnicity and ethnic movements |
| Jun 2024 | Assumptions of liberalisation; India's UNSC claim; middle vs emerging powers; globalisation; New World Order and India | Technology and the international system; China as superpower; nuclear non-proliferation; IBRD; FDI and portfolio investment |
| Dec 2024 | Realist approach; international economic relations; Marxist or feminist approach; notes: nation-state challenges, regional groupings; India's challenges in the new order | Self-determination; global fight against terrorism; science and technology; transnational religious movements; notes: global inequality, US role |
| Jun 2025 | Neo-radical approaches; realist concepts; post-modernism; environment–development debate; notes: New Cold War, globalisation | Economic issues in IR; nuclear non-proliferation; American hegemony; globalisation today; notes: China's military modernisation, human security |
| Dec 2025 | Realist approach; contemporary IR; post-Cold War challenges; environment and development; notes: post-colonialism, feminist critique of realism | Transnational religious movements; China as superpower; science and technology; inter-ethnic harmony in Central Asia; notes: indigenous movements, human security |
| Jun 2026 | Neo-liberal approach; Marxist and radical approaches; IMF and World Bank; challenges to the nation-state; notes: environment–development, disarmament | Global fight against terrorism; US challenges after the Cold War; transnational religious movements; self-determination; notes: NPT, global corporatism |
Honesty notes. These notes were written from standard IR sources, not copied from IGNOU blocks; check names and dates against your IGNOU study material if a detail matters. World politics changes quickly: verify recent developments (US–China relations, wars, treaties) before quoting them. Exam trends describe past papers and do not guarantee future questions.
ईमानदारी नोट: ये नोट्स मानक IR स्रोतों से लिखे गए हैं, IGNOU ब्लॉक से नकल नहीं। विश्व राजनीति तेज़ी से बदलती है: हाल की घटनाएँ उद्धृत करने से पहले जाँचें। ट्रेंड पिछले प्रश्नपत्रों का वर्णन है, भविष्य की गारंटी नहीं।
Read your IGNOU blocks for MPS-002 first, then use these notes to decide which topics to revise more. Practise writing at least a few answers in about 500 words, and check the official question papers for the current pattern. More material for this programme is on the MA Political Science (MPS) page, and the official IGNOU site is at ignou.ac.in.