MA Political Science (MPS) · 14 pages · English + हिन्दी
⬇ Download PDFThese are AI-assisted exam notes prepared from an analysis of past IGNOU term-end papers. They are not official IGNOU material. Topics and answer frames can contain mistakes, so check them against your current IGNOU syllabus, your study blocks and the official question papers before you rely on them.
Exam notes for MA Political Science, built from the trend of nine official IGNOU papers. Topics are ordered by how often they were asked, and each one gives the core argument, the Indian facts and scholars to cite, and a 20-mark answer frame.
एम.ए. राजनीति विज्ञान के परीक्षा नोट्स, नौ आधिकारिक IGNOU प्रश्नपत्रों के ट्रेंड पर आधारित। टॉपिक इस क्रम में हैं कि वे कितनी बार पूछे गए, और हर टॉपिक में मूल तर्क, भारतीय तथ्य, विद्वान और 20 अंकों के उत्तर की रूपरेखा है।
Papers analysed: June 2022, December 2022, June 2023, December 2023, June 2024, December 2024, June 2025, December 2025, June 2026 (9 papers)
Every paper had two sections of five questions; students answer five, with at least two from each section, in about 500 words each. Almost every paper included one or two short-notes questions (two notes of about 200–250 words). This course is also taught as a second-year option in MA Sociology, so sociology students may find these notes useful.
हर प्रश्नपत्र में पाँच-पाँच प्रश्नों के दो भाग थे; पाँच उत्तर, हर भाग से कम-से-कम दो, लगभग 500 शब्दों में। लगभग हर प्रश्नपत्र में एक या दो संक्षिप्त टिप्पणी प्रश्न (200–250 शब्दों की दो टिप्पणियाँ) थे। यह पाठ्यक्रम एम.ए. समाजशास्त्र के द्वितीय वर्ष में विकल्प के रूप में भी है।
| Topic / टॉपिक | Papers (of 9) / प्रश्नपत्र | Sessions / सत्र |
|---|---|---|
| Democracy and development in India / भारत में लोकतंत्र और विकास | 9/9 | Every paper |
| Institutions: Parliament, judiciary, executive, bureaucracy / संस्थाएँ | 8/9 | All except Jun 25 |
| Social movements and civil society / सामाजिक आंदोलन | 8/9 | All except Dec 24 |
| Identity politics: caste, class, religion, region, ethnicity / पहचान की राजनीति | 8/9 | All except Jun 22 |
| Development approaches and policies / विकास के उपागम और नीतियाँ | 7/9 | Dec 22, Jun 23, Dec 23, Jun 24, Dec 24, Dec 25, Jun 26 |
| Gender and development / जेंडर और विकास | 6/9 | Jun 22, Dec 22, Dec 23, Jun 24, Jun 25, Jun 26 |
| Federalism / संघवाद | 5/9 | Dec 22, Jun 23, Dec 23, Dec 24, Dec 25 |
| Decentralisation and Panchayati Raj / विकेंद्रीकरण | 5/9 | Jun 22, Dec 22, Jun 23, Jun 25, Jun 26 |
| Socialist and Gandhian thinking / समाजवादी और गांधीवादी चिंतन | 4/9 | Jun 22, Dec 23, Dec 24, Dec 25 |
| Media and interest groups / मीडिया और हित समूह | 4/9 | Jun 22, Dec 23, Jun 25, Dec 25 |
| Migration / प्रवास | 2/9 | Dec 22, Dec 23 |
Counts are papers, not questions. The appendix lists every question by session. Statistics and recent events change; verify them before quoting.
Study plan / अध्ययन योजना: Topics 1–5 appeared in seven to nine of nine papers. With these and topic 6, students had at least five questions in every paper; topics 7–11 add choice and short notes.
टॉपिक 1–5 नौ में से सात से नौ प्रश्नपत्रों में आए। इनके और टॉपिक 6 के साथ हर प्रश्नपत्र में कम-से-कम पाँच प्रश्न मिलते थे; टॉपिक 7–11 विकल्प और संक्षिप्त टिप्पणियाँ बढ़ाते हैं।
9 of 9 papers. The ongoing debate on democracy and development (Jun 2022, Jun 2024, Jun 2025); democracy and economic development in the first two decades (Dec 2022, Jun 2024); performance and role of democracy (Jun 2023, Dec 2023); factors affecting the political system (Jun 2023); post-1967 transformation (Dec 2024, Dec 2025); democracy as good governance (Dec 2024 note); political participation and inclusiveness (Jun 2023 note, Jun 2025, Jun 2026).
The first two decades (1947–67). India combined a parliamentary democracy with universal adult suffrage (from the first elections of 1951–52) and planned economic development. Politics was dominated by what Rajni Kothari called the "Congress system" (1964): one dominant party that absorbed diverse interests and opposition through internal factions. Development followed the Nehru–Mahalanobis model of a mixed economy, heavy industry and public sector (Second Plan, 1956), with land reform, community development and the beginnings of the Green Revolution. Achievements: institution building, stable democracy and an industrial base; limits: slow growth, persistent poverty, weak land reform.
Post-1967 transformation. In 1967 the Congress lost power in several states; coalition (Samyukta Vidhayak Dal) governments followed. Key changes: the Congress split (1969) and Indira Gandhi's populism ("Garibi Hatao", 1971); centralisation and the Emergency (1975–77); the Janata government (1977); the rise of regional and caste-based parties; the Mandal implementation (1990) and OBC assertion; Dalit parties (BSP, 1984); the Hindutva mobilisation; the coalition era (1989–2014); and economic liberalisation (1991). Yogendra Yadav called the rise of lower-caste and rural voters a "second democratic upsurge".
The democracy–development debate. Does democracy help or hinder development? Arguments that it helps: accountability, information and protection against famine (Amartya Sen noted that famines do not occur in functioning democracies with a free press); legitimacy for reform; protection of rights and minorities. Arguments that it hinders: short-term populism, slow decisions, interest-group capture, and the contrast with fast-growing authoritarian China. Indian experience: democracy has survived amid poverty and diversity and has widened participation, but has coexisted with inequality, weak state capacity in health and education, and corruption. Newer debates concern rights-based development, welfare schemes and the quality of democracy (institutions, civil liberties).
Political participation and inclusiveness. Indian turnout is high, and since the 1990s poorer, rural, lower-caste and women voters participate at high rates; reservation in legislatures (SCs and STs), in panchayats (one-third for women) and the 2023 constitutional amendment providing one-third reservation for women in the Lok Sabha and state assemblies (to take effect after delimitation) widen representation. Limits: under-representation of women and Muslims in legislatures, money and criminalisation in politics, and participation that does not always translate into influence. Factors affecting the political system: social structure (caste, religion, region), economic development, party system, political culture, institutions, media and globalisation.
पहले दो दशक (1947–67): सार्वभौमिक वयस्क मताधिकार के साथ संसदीय लोकतंत्र (पहला चुनाव 1951–52) और नियोजित विकास। रजनी कोठारी की "कांग्रेस व्यवस्था" (1964): एक प्रभुत्वशाली दल जो आंतरिक गुटों के माध्यम से विविध हितों को समाहित करता था। नेहरू-महालनोबिस मॉडल: मिश्रित अर्थव्यवस्था, भारी उद्योग, सार्वजनिक क्षेत्र (दूसरी योजना, 1956)। उपलब्धियाँ: संस्था निर्माण, स्थिर लोकतंत्र; सीमाएँ: धीमी संवृद्धि, गरीबी, कमज़ोर भूमि सुधार।
1967 के बाद रूपांतरण: कई राज्यों में कांग्रेस की हार और संविद सरकारें; कांग्रेस विभाजन (1969) और "गरीबी हटाओ" (1971); केंद्रीकरण और आपातकाल (1975–77); जनता सरकार (1977); क्षेत्रीय और जाति-आधारित दलों का उदय; मंडल (1990); BSP (1984); हिंदुत्व लामबंदी; गठबंधन युग (1989–2014); उदारीकरण (1991)। योगेन्द्र यादव: "दूसरा लोकतांत्रिक उभार"।
लोकतंत्र-विकास बहस: सहायक: जवाबदेही, सूचना, अकाल से सुरक्षा (अमर्त्य सेन), सुधारों की वैधता, अधिकारों की रक्षा। बाधक: लोकलुभावनवाद, धीमे निर्णय, हित-समूहों का कब्ज़ा, चीन से तुलना। भारतीय अनुभव: गरीबी और विविधता के बीच लोकतंत्र टिका और भागीदारी बढ़ी, पर असमानता, कमज़ोर राज्य क्षमता और भ्रष्टाचार भी रहे।
राजनीतिक भागीदारी: ऊँचा मतदान; 1990 के बाद गरीब, ग्रामीण, निम्न-जाति और स्त्री मतदाताओं की अधिक भागीदारी; विधायिकाओं में SC-ST आरक्षण, पंचायतों में स्त्रियों के लिए एक-तिहाई, और 2023 का संशोधन (लोकसभा और विधानसभाओं में स्त्रियों के लिए एक-तिहाई, परिसीमन के बाद)। सीमाएँ: स्त्रियों और मुसलमानों का कम प्रतिनिधित्व, धन और अपराधीकरण। राजनीतिक व्यवस्था को प्रभावित करने वाले कारक: सामाजिक संरचना, आर्थिक विकास, दलीय व्यवस्था, राजनीतिक संस्कृति, संस्थाएँ, मीडिया, वैश्वीकरण।
8 of 9 papers. Parliament (Jun 2022); Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha (Dec 2022); parliamentary sovereignty (Dec 2025); President in Parliament (Jun 2026 note); judiciary (Dec 2023, Dec 2024) and judicial review and PIL (Dec 2022, Dec 2025 notes); executive–judiciary relations (Jun 2024); bureaucracy (Jun 2024); constitutional rights (Jun 2023); military in democratic politics (Dec 2025).
Parliament. Consists of the President, the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha (Article 79). Functions: law-making, financial control (budget, Article 112), executive accountability (question hour, debates, no-confidence motions, committees), constitutional amendment, electoral functions (President, Vice-President) and representation. The Lok Sabha is directly elected and controls money bills and the government's survival; the Rajya Sabha represents the states, revises legislation and gives a forum for expertise. Parliamentary sovereignty? In Britain Parliament is sovereign; in India the Constitution is supreme, Parliament's power is limited by fundamental rights, federalism and judicial review, and the basic structure doctrine (Kesavananda Bharati, 1973) prevents amendments that destroy the Constitution's core. Concerns: fewer sittings, less committee scrutiny of bills, frequent disruptions, ordinances and the use of money-bill routes. The President in Parliament: summons and prorogues the Houses, addresses them at the start of the first session each year, assents to bills (Article 111), and issues ordinances when Parliament is not in session (Article 123), acting on the advice of the Council of Ministers.
Judiciary. An integrated, independent judiciary with the Supreme Court at the top. Judicial review (Articles 13, 32, 226) lets courts strike down laws and executive acts that violate the Constitution. Public Interest Litigation, developed from the late 1970s and early 1980s, relaxed standing rules so that anyone could approach the court for the poor and voiceless (prisoners, bonded labourers, the environment). The Court expanded Article 21 to include rights to livelihood, education, health, privacy (2017) and a clean environment. Is it the most effective guardian of rights? It has protected rights and checked power (basic structure, S. R. Bommai, 1994), but faces case backlogs, uneven access and charges of judicial overreach. Executive–judiciary relations: tensions over judicial appointments (the collegium system; the National Judicial Appointments Commission was struck down in 2015), over the "committed judiciary" debate of the 1970s, over policy-making by courts, and over the implementation of judgments; cooperation is needed for the rule of law.
Bureaucracy. The permanent civil service (IAS and others) implements policy and advises ministers. Relations: accountable to the political executive and, through it, to the legislature; expected to be politically neutral, but the "committed bureaucracy" debate of the 1970s and frequent transfers raise concerns about politicisation. Legislative oversight works through committees (Public Accounts Committee) and audit (CAG). Issues: red tape, corruption, generalist vs specialist debates and reform.
Military in democratic politics. The classical view (Samuel Huntington's The Soldier and the State, 1957) is that the military should be a professional, apolitical instrument under civilian control. India has maintained firm civilian control, unlike several neighbours where the military intervened. Debates continue on defence policy, the Chief of Defence Staff (created 2019) and civil–military coordination.
संसद: राष्ट्रपति, लोकसभा और राज्यसभा (अनुच्छेद 79)। कार्य: विधि-निर्माण, वित्तीय नियंत्रण, कार्यपालिका की जवाबदेही (प्रश्नकाल, अविश्वास प्रस्ताव, समितियाँ), संविधान संशोधन, निर्वाचन, प्रतिनिधित्व। लोकसभा प्रत्यक्ष निर्वाचित और धन विधेयकों पर नियंत्रण; राज्यसभा राज्यों का प्रतिनिधित्व और पुनरीक्षण। संसदीय संप्रभुता? ब्रिटेन में संसद संप्रभु; भारत में संविधान सर्वोच्च; मूल ढाँचा सिद्धान्त (केशवानंद भारती, 1973)। चिंताएँ: कम बैठकें, समिति जाँच में कमी, व्यवधान, अध्यादेश। संसद में राष्ट्रपति: सत्र बुलाना और सत्रावसान, अभिभाषण, विधेयकों को स्वीकृति (अनुच्छेद 111), अध्यादेश (अनुच्छेद 123), मंत्रिपरिषद की सलाह पर।
न्यायपालिका: एकीकृत, स्वतंत्र, शीर्ष पर सर्वोच्च न्यायालय। न्यायिक पुनरावलोकन (अनुच्छेद 13, 32, 226)। जनहित याचिका (1970 के दशक के अंत और 1980 के दशक से): गरीबों और बेज़ुबानों के लिए कोई भी न्यायालय जा सकता है। अनुच्छेद 21 का विस्तार: आजीविका, शिक्षा, स्वास्थ्य, निजता (2017), स्वच्छ पर्यावरण। अधिकारों की रक्षा की (मूल ढाँचा, एस. आर. बोम्मई, 1994), पर लंबित मामले, असमान पहुँच और "न्यायिक अतिक्रमण" के आरोप। कार्यपालिका-न्यायपालिका संबंध: नियुक्तियों पर तनाव (कॉलेजियम; NJAC 2015 में निरस्त), 1970 के दशक की "प्रतिबद्ध न्यायपालिका" बहस, न्यायिक नीति-निर्माण।
नौकरशाही: स्थायी सिविल सेवा नीति लागू करती और सलाह देती है; राजनीतिक कार्यपालिका के प्रति जवाबदेह; तटस्थता अपेक्षित, पर "प्रतिबद्ध नौकरशाही" बहस और बार-बार तबादले; विधायी निगरानी (लोक लेखा समिति, CAG)।
लोकतांत्रिक राजनीति में सेना: शास्त्रीय दृष्टि (हंटिंगटन, 1957): पेशेवर, अराजनीतिक, नागरिक नियंत्रण में। भारत में दृढ़ नागरिक नियंत्रण; चीफ़ ऑफ़ डिफ़ेंस स्टाफ़ (2019)।
8 of 9 papers. Peasant movements (Jun 2022, Jun 2025, Dec 2025; notes Jun 2023, Dec 2023); Tebhaga (Jun 2022, Jun 2025 notes); workers' and peasant movements (Dec 2022); working-class movements since Independence (Jun 2026); new social movements and the marginalised (Jun 2022); civil society and new social movements (Jun 2024); civil society in the era of globalisation (Jun 2025).
Peasant movements. Colonial period: the Indigo revolt (1859–60), Deccan riots (1875), Champaran (1917) and Kheda (1918) satyagrahas, the Moplah rebellion (1921), Bardoli (1928), the All India Kisan Sabha (1936), the Tebhaga movement (1946–47) of Bengal sharecroppers demanding two-thirds of the crop instead of half, and the Telangana armed struggle (1946–51) against the Nizam and landlords. After Independence: land-reform agitations, the Naxalbari uprising (1967) and Maoist movements; the new farmers' movements of the 1980s (Sharad Joshi's Shetkari Sanghatana, Mahendra Singh Tikait's Bharatiya Kisan Union) for remunerative prices and subsidies; and the 2020–21 protests that led to the repeal of three farm laws in November 2021. The shift is from tenancy and land to markets, prices and state policy.
Working-class movements since Independence. Trade unions are affiliated to parties: AITUC (1920, communist), INTUC (1947, Congress), HMS (1948, socialist), BMS (1955, linked to the Sangh), CITU (1970). Phases: growth of public-sector and organised-sector unions; militancy in the 1970s and the 1974 railway strike; the Bombay textile strike (1982–83) and mill closures; decline of union power after liberalisation with informalisation and contract labour; and debates over the four labour codes passed in 2019–20. Most workers remain in the unorganised sector, outside union protection.
New social movements and civil society. New social movements focus on identity, environment, gender, rights and autonomy rather than class: the Chipko movement (1973), Narmada Bachao Andolan, the women's movement, Dalit and Adivasi movements, and the Right to Information campaign led by the Mazdoor Kisan Shakti Sangathan. They empower marginalised groups by raising voice, building organisation, using courts and media, and winning laws (RTI Act 2005, Forest Rights Act 2006). Changing notions of civil society: from the liberal sphere of voluntary associations, through Gramsci's site of hegemony, to the NGO-centred civil society of the 1990s. In the era of globalisation: civil society has grown transnational (funding, networks, campaigns against WTO rules or for climate justice), has filled gaps left by the state, and has resisted displacement; but critics note NGO professionalisation, donor dependence, middle-class bias, and recent restrictions on foreign funding.
किसान आंदोलन: औपनिवेशिक काल: नील विद्रोह (1859–60), दक्कन दंगे (1875), चंपारण (1917), खेड़ा (1918), मोपला (1921), बारडोली (1928), अखिल भारतीय किसान सभा (1936), तेभागा (1946–47; बंगाल के बटाईदारों की आधे के बजाय दो-तिहाई फ़सल की माँग), तेलंगाना सशस्त्र संघर्ष (1946–51)। स्वतंत्रता के बाद: भूमि सुधार आंदोलन, नक्सलबाड़ी (1967), 1980 के दशक के नए किसान आंदोलन (शरद जोशी, महेंद्र सिंह टिकैत), 2020–21 का आंदोलन (नवंबर 2021 में तीन कानून वापस)। बदलाव: भूमि और काश्तकारी से बाज़ार, मूल्य और नीति की ओर।
स्वतंत्रता के बाद मज़दूर आंदोलन: दलों से जुड़ी यूनियनें: AITUC (1920), INTUC (1947), HMS (1948), BMS (1955), CITU (1970)। चरण: संगठित क्षेत्र में विस्तार; 1970 के दशक की उग्रता और 1974 की रेल हड़ताल; बंबई कपड़ा हड़ताल (1982–83); उदारीकरण के बाद अनौपचारिकीकरण और यूनियनों की कमज़ोरी; 2019–20 की चार श्रम संहिताओं पर बहस। अधिकांश श्रमिक असंगठित क्षेत्र में।
नए सामाजिक आंदोलन और नागरिक समाज: पहचान, पर्यावरण, जेंडर, अधिकार और स्वायत्तता पर केंद्रित: चिपको (1973), नर्मदा बचाओ आंदोलन, स्त्री आंदोलन, दलित और आदिवासी आंदोलन, MKSS के नेतृत्व में सूचना का अधिकार अभियान। वंचितों का सशक्तिकरण: आवाज़, संगठन, न्यायालय और मीडिया, नए कानून (RTI 2005, वन अधिकार 2006)। वैश्वीकरण के युग में: पारराष्ट्रीय नेटवर्क, राज्य की कमी को भरना, विस्थापन का विरोध; पर NGO का पेशेवरीकरण, दाता निर्भरता, मध्यवर्गीय झुकाव और विदेशी चंदे पर प्रतिबंध।
8 of 9 papers. Class inequality (Dec 2022); caste inequalities (Dec 2023, Jun 2024; Dec 2024 note); social inequality and its effects (Jun 2026); religious politics (Dec 2022, Jun 2024, Jun 2026); regional identities, regionalism and regionalisation (Dec 2022, Jun 2023, Dec 2023, Jun 2025, Jun 2026); identity politics (Dec 2024 and Jun 2025 notes, Dec 2025); ethnic politics and ethnicity in North-East India (Jun 2025, Jun 2026).
Caste and class inequality. Caste remains a basis of inequality in land, education, occupation and dignity: untouchability is constitutionally abolished (Article 17) but discrimination and violence persist. Protective discrimination (reservation for SCs, STs, and OBCs after the Mandal Commission's recommendations were implemented in 1990) and political mobilisation (Dalit and OBC parties) have changed representation. Class inequality has widened since liberalisation, with wealth concentrated at the top and a large informal workforce. Caste and class overlap but are not identical. Effects on the political system and policy: vote-bank politics and caste-based parties, demands for reservation and caste census, welfare targeting, and conflict over land and resources.
Religious politics. Rooted in colonial separate electorates and Partition (1947); after Independence, issues included personal law reform, cow protection, conversion and language. From the 1980s religious politics intensified: the Shah Bano case (1985–86) and the Muslim Women Act; Sikh militancy and Operation Blue Star (1984); the Ayodhya movement and the demolition of the Babri Masjid (1992); communal riots (Mumbai 1992–93, Gujarat 2002); and the rise of Hindutva to national power. Consequences: polarisation, communal violence, debates on secularism and minority rights, and changes in party competition.
Regionalism and regionalisation. Regional identities rest on language, culture, history and uneven development: the linguistic reorganisation of states (States Reorganisation Act, 1956), the Dravidian movement and DMK, demands for new states (Telangana, created 2014), and regional parties (TDP 1982, Shiv Sena, Akali Dal, BJD, TMC). Regionalisation of Indian politics: since the 1990s, state-level parties and coalitions have shaped national politics. Implications for the new economic policies: after 1991, states compete for investment, design their own industrial and welfare policies, and bargain with the Centre; liberalisation widened regional inequality (south and west vs north and east). Rob Jenkins argued that federal politics helped reforms advance by stealth.
Ethnicity in North-East India. The region has many tribal and ethnic communities, a history of separate administration, and insurgencies: the Naga movement (since the 1950s), the Mizo insurgency ending with the Mizo Accord (1986), the Assam movement against "foreigners" (1979–85; Assam Accord 1985), Bodo movements, and ethnic conflict in Manipur (including the violence that began in 2023). The Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act (1958) and the Sixth Schedule's autonomous councils shape governance. Identity politics generally: mobilisation on the basis of caste, religion, language, tribe or region to claim recognition, resources and power; it deepens democracy by including marginalised groups but can also fragment and polarise.
जाति और वर्ग असमानता: भूमि, शिक्षा, व्यवसाय और गरिमा में जाति असमानता का आधार; छुआछूत संवैधानिक रूप से समाप्त (अनुच्छेद 17) पर भेदभाव और हिंसा जारी। आरक्षण (मंडल सिफ़ारिशें 1990 में लागू) और दलित-OBC दलों से प्रतिनिधित्व बदला। उदारीकरण के बाद वर्ग असमानता बढ़ी। प्रभाव: वोट-बैंक राजनीति, जाति-आधारित दल, आरक्षण और जाति जनगणना की माँग, कल्याण योजनाओं का लक्ष्यीकरण।
धार्मिक राजनीति: औपनिवेशिक पृथक निर्वाचन और विभाजन (1947) में जड़ें; 1980 के दशक से तीव्र: शाहबानो (1985–86), ऑपरेशन ब्लू स्टार (1984), अयोध्या आंदोलन और बाबरी विध्वंस (1992), दंगे (मुंबई 1992–93, गुजरात 2002), हिंदुत्व का राष्ट्रीय सत्ता तक उदय। परिणाम: ध्रुवीकरण, साम्प्रदायिक हिंसा, धर्मनिरपेक्षता और अल्पसंख्यक अधिकारों पर बहस।
क्षेत्रवाद और क्षेत्रीयकरण: भाषा, संस्कृति, इतिहास और असमान विकास: भाषाई राज्य (1956), द्रविड़ आंदोलन, तेलंगाना (2014), क्षेत्रीय दल (TDP 1982, शिवसेना, अकाली दल, BJD, TMC)। 1990 के बाद राज्य-स्तरीय दल और गठबंधन राष्ट्रीय राजनीति को आकार देते हैं। नई आर्थिक नीतियों पर प्रभाव: 1991 के बाद राज्य निवेश के लिए प्रतिस्पर्धा करते हैं; क्षेत्रीय असमानता बढ़ी; रॉब जेनकिन्स: संघीय राजनीति ने सुधारों को "चुपके से" आगे बढ़ाया।
पूर्वोत्तर में नृजातीयता: अनेक जनजातीय समुदाय, अलग प्रशासन का इतिहास, उग्रवाद: नगा आंदोलन (1950 के दशक से), मिज़ो समझौता (1986), असम आंदोलन (1979–85; असम समझौता 1985), बोडो आंदोलन, मणिपुर में जातीय संघर्ष (2023 से)। AFSPA (1958) और छठी अनुसूची। पहचान की राजनीति वंचितों को शामिल कर लोकतंत्र गहरा करती है, पर विखंडन और ध्रुवीकरण भी करती है।
7 of 9 papers. Models of development (Jun 2023); political economy approach and theories (Dec 2023, Jun 2024 note, Dec 2024, Dec 2025); LPG and economic reforms of the 1990s (Dec 2022, Jun 2023, Jun 2024); basic minimum needs approach (Jun 2023, Dec 2024); human development (Dec 2024 note, Jun 2026); sustainable development (Jun 2024, Dec 2024); poverty alleviation programmes (Dec 2024); Gandhi's economic thinking (Dec 2025).
Models of development. The Nehruvian state-led model (planning, public sector, import substitution); the Gandhian model (village self-reliance, decentralisation, cottage industry, trusteeship); the neo-liberal market model after 1991; and alternative people-centred, sustainable and rights-based models. Political economy of development (PED): studies how classes, interests and the state shape development. Theories include modernisation, dependency, the developmental state (Chalmers Johnson on Japan) and Marxist analysis. In India, Pranab Bardhan (The Political Economy of Development in India, 1984) argued that three dominant proprietary classes (industrial capitalists, rich farmers and the professional-bureaucratic class) competed for state resources through subsidies, leading to slow growth; others stress the shift towards a pro-business state from the 1980s.
LPG (1991). A balance-of-payments crisis led to liberalisation (end of the licence raj, lower tariffs, entry of foreign investment), privatisation (disinvestment of public enterprises) and globalisation (integration with world markets). Consequences: higher growth, a services and IT boom, a growing middle class and a substantial fall in poverty rates; but rising inequality, "jobless" growth, agrarian distress, regional imbalance and pressure on public spending.
Basic minimum needs approach. The ILO's basic-needs approach (1976) put food, shelter, clothing, health, education, water and sanitation first. India's Minimum Needs Programme began with the Fifth Five-Year Plan (1974–79), providing elementary education, rural health, drinking water, rural roads, electrification, housing and nutrition. Human development: the UNDP's Human Development Report (1990), drawing on Amartya Sen's capability approach and Mahbub ul Haq, measures development by health, education and income (HDI); approaches include capability, rights-based and participatory approaches. India's HDI rank is in the lower-middle group; check the latest report.
Sustainable development. Defined by the Brundtland Report (1987) as meeting present needs without compromising future generations' ability to meet theirs. Principles: intergenerational equity, environmental protection integrated with development, polluter pays, precaution, public participation and common but differentiated responsibilities. International agencies: UNEP (1972), the IPCC (1988), the Global Environment Facility (1991), and the Rio (1992) and Paris (2015) frameworks; India's institutions include the National Green Tribunal (2010).
Poverty alleviation programmes. From the Integrated Rural Development Programme (from 1978–80) and wage employment schemes (NREP, Jawahar Rozgar Yojana 1989), to MGNREGA (2005), the National Rural Livelihoods Mission (2011), public distribution and the National Food Security Act (2013), and direct benefit transfers and financial inclusion (Jan Dhan, 2014). Improving quality of life: universal health and education quality, employment-intensive growth, social security for informal workers, better targeting and local accountability.
Gandhi's economic thinking. Swadeshi and khadi; village self-sufficiency; limiting wants; bread labour; trusteeship (the rich as trustees of wealth); opposition to machinery that displaces labour; and decentralised production. It shaped the national movement's constructive programme and later rural development thinking.
विकास के मॉडल: नेहरूवादी राज्य-नेतृत्व मॉडल; गांधीवादी (ग्राम स्वावलंबन, विकेंद्रीकरण, कुटीर उद्योग, न्यासिता); 1991 के बाद नवउदार बाज़ार मॉडल; जन-केंद्रित, सतत और अधिकार-आधारित विकल्प। विकास की राजनीतिक अर्थव्यवस्था: वर्ग, हित और राज्य विकास को कैसे आकार देते हैं। प्रणब बर्धन (1984): तीन प्रभुत्वशाली स्वामित्व वर्ग (औद्योगिक पूँजीपति, धनी किसान, पेशेवर-नौकरशाह) सब्सिडी के लिए प्रतिस्पर्धा करते रहे, जिससे धीमी संवृद्धि।
LPG (1991): भुगतान-संतुलन संकट के बाद उदारीकरण, निजीकरण, वैश्वीकरण। परिणाम: तेज़ संवृद्धि, सेवा और IT, मध्य वर्ग, गरीबी में कमी; पर बढ़ती असमानता, रोज़गारविहीन संवृद्धि, कृषि संकट, क्षेत्रीय असंतुलन।
बुनियादी न्यूनतम आवश्यकता उपागम: ILO (1976); भारत का न्यूनतम आवश्यकता कार्यक्रम पाँचवीं योजना (1974–79) से: प्राथमिक शिक्षा, ग्रामीण स्वास्थ्य, पेयजल, ग्रामीण सड़कें, विद्युतीकरण, आवास, पोषण। मानव विकास: UNDP (1990), सेन और महबूब उल हक़; HDI; भारत निम्न-मध्यम समूह में (नवीनतम रिपोर्ट देखें)।
सतत विकास: ब्रंटलैंड (1987)। सिद्धान्त: अंतर-पीढ़ी समता, विकास में पर्यावरण संरक्षण, प्रदूषक भुगतान करे, सावधानी, भागीदारी, साझा पर विभेदित उत्तरदायित्व। एजेंसियाँ: UNEP (1972), IPCC (1988), GEF (1991); भारत में राष्ट्रीय हरित अधिकरण (2010)।
गरीबी उन्मूलन कार्यक्रम: IRDP, NREP, जवाहर रोज़गार योजना (1989), मनरेगा (2005), राष्ट्रीय ग्रामीण आजीविका मिशन (2011), खाद्य सुरक्षा अधिनियम (2013), जन धन (2014)।
गांधी का आर्थिक चिंतन: स्वदेशी और खादी, ग्राम स्वावलंबन, सीमित आवश्यकताएँ, शरीर-श्रम, न्यासिता, श्रम-विस्थापक मशीनों का विरोध, विकेंद्रीकृत उत्पादन।
6 of 9 papers. Agencies of development and women's rights (Jun 2022); gender and development (Dec 2022 and Jun 2024 notes); development and gender justice (Dec 2023); WID approach (Jun 2025); development and women's rights (Jun 2026).
Approaches. Women in Development (WID), 1970s, following Ester Boserup (1970): integrate women into development through education, credit and jobs; critique: treats women as an add-on and ignores power relations and unpaid work. Women and Development (WAD): women are already part of development, but within unequal structures. Gender and Development (GAD), 1980s: focuses on gender relations of power, the household and the sexual division of labour, and distinguishes practical from strategic gender needs (Caroline Moser). Empowerment approach: women's own organisation and voice. Agencies: the UN (CEDAW, 1979; UN Women, 2010), the World Bank, NGOs and self-help groups; in India, the National Commission for Women (1992), ministries, and the constitutional and legal framework. Indian experience: gains in literacy, health and political representation (one-third in panchayats); laws on domestic violence (2005) and workplace harassment (2013); but low female labour-force participation, a skewed sex ratio, violence and unpaid care work. Development without gender justice reproduces inequality; gender justice requires rights, resources and voice.
उपागम: WID (1970 का दशक, बोसरप 1970): शिक्षा, ऋण और नौकरियों से स्त्रियों को विकास में जोड़ना; आलोचना: शक्ति-संबंधों और अवैतनिक श्रम की उपेक्षा। WAD: स्त्रियाँ पहले से विकास का हिस्सा, पर असमान ढाँचे में। GAD (1980 का दशक): जेंडर शक्ति-संबंध, परिवार, श्रम-विभाजन; मोज़र की व्यावहारिक और रणनीतिक आवश्यकताएँ। सशक्तिकरण उपागम। एजेंसियाँ: UN (CEDAW 1979, UN Women 2010), विश्व बैंक, NGO और स्वयं सहायता समूह; भारत में राष्ट्रीय महिला आयोग (1992)। भारतीय अनुभव: साक्षरता, स्वास्थ्य और पंचायतों में एक-तिहाई प्रतिनिधित्व; घरेलू हिंसा (2005) और कार्यस्थल उत्पीड़न (2013) कानून; पर कम श्रम-भागीदारी, विषम लिंगानुपात, हिंसा और अवैतनिक देखभाल कार्य।
5 of 9 papers. Working of the federal system (Dec 2022 note, Jun 2023, Dec 2023, Dec 2024); salient features of Indian federalism (Dec 2025).
Salient features. India is a "Union of States" (Article 1) with a written constitution, division of powers in three lists (Union, State, Concurrent; Seventh Schedule), an independent judiciary, bicameral Parliament with the Rajya Sabha for states, and constitutional supremacy. Unitary features: residuary powers with the Centre; Parliament can reorganise states (Article 3), legislate on state subjects in the national interest (Article 249) and during emergencies; President's Rule (Article 356); governors appointed by the Centre; all-India services; single citizenship; and centralised finances. K. C. Wheare called it "quasi-federal". Working: from one-party dominance and centralisation (frequent misuse of Article 356 before S. R. Bommai, 1994) to coalition-era bargaining and "cooperative" and "competitive" federalism; commissions on Centre–state relations (Sarkaria, 1988; Punchhi, 2010); fiscal federalism through Finance Commissions and the Goods and Services Tax Council (2017). Tensions: governors' roles, central agencies, fiscal transfers, language and river-water disputes.
मुख्य विशेषताएँ: "राज्यों का संघ" (अनुच्छेद 1); लिखित संविधान; तीन सूचियों में शक्ति-विभाजन (सातवीं अनुसूची); स्वतंत्र न्यायपालिका; राज्यसभा; संविधान की सर्वोच्चता। एकात्मक विशेषताएँ: अवशिष्ट शक्तियाँ केंद्र के पास, अनुच्छेद 3, 249, आपातकाल, राष्ट्रपति शासन (अनुच्छेद 356), केंद्र द्वारा नियुक्त राज्यपाल, अखिल भारतीय सेवाएँ, एकल नागरिकता। के. सी. व्हीयर: "अर्ध-संघीय"। कार्यप्रणाली: केंद्रीकरण और अनुच्छेद 356 का दुरुपयोग (एस. आर. बोम्मई, 1994 से पहले), गठबंधन युग में सौदेबाज़ी, "सहकारी" और "प्रतिस्पर्धी" संघवाद; सरकारिया (1988) और पुंछी (2010) आयोग; वित्त आयोग और GST परिषद (2017)। तनाव: राज्यपाल, केंद्रीय एजेंसियाँ, वित्तीय हस्तांतरण, भाषा और नदी जल विवाद।
5 of 9 papers. Panchayati Raj and the Ashok Mehta Committee (Jun 2022; Jun 2026 note); Panchayati Raj and democratic decentralisation (Dec 2022); evolution of decentralisation (Jun 2023); 74th Amendment (Jun 2025 note); decentralisation and local self-government (Jun 2026).
Evolution. Gandhi's idea of village swaraj; Article 40 (Directive Principle) on village panchayats; the Balwantrai Mehta Committee (1957) recommended a three-tier system (village, block, district), adopted from 1959 (Rajasthan first). It declined because of weak powers and funds, bureaucratic control and irregular elections. The Ashok Mehta Committee (1977–78) recommended a two-tier system (Zilla Parishad and Mandal Panchayat), open participation of political parties, compulsory taxation powers, regular elections and the district as the unit of planning; Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal acted on related ideas. The G. V. K. Rao (1985) and L. M. Singhvi (1986) committees urged constitutional status. The 73rd and 74th Amendments (1992) created constitutionally mandated rural and urban local bodies: a three-tier panchayat structure, the gram sabha, five-year terms, reservation for SCs, STs and women (at least one-third), State Election Commissions, State Finance Commissions, and lists of functions (29 subjects for panchayats in the Eleventh Schedule; 18 for municipalities in the Twelfth). PESA (1996) extended self-governance to Scheduled Areas. Assessment: wider participation and women's leadership, but limited devolution of funds, functions and functionaries, and elite and proxy capture.
विकास: गांधी का ग्राम स्वराज; अनुच्छेद 40; बलवंत राय मेहता समिति (1957): त्रि-स्तरीय व्यवस्था, 1959 से (पहले राजस्थान); कमज़ोर शक्तियों, धन और अनियमित चुनावों से पतन। अशोक मेहता समिति (1977–78): द्वि-स्तरीय (ज़िला परिषद और मंडल पंचायत), दलों की खुली भागीदारी, अनिवार्य कराधान शक्ति, नियमित चुनाव, ज़िला नियोजन की इकाई। जी. वी. के. राव (1985) और एल. एम. सिंघवी (1986) समितियाँ। 73वाँ और 74वाँ संशोधन (1992): त्रि-स्तरीय पंचायत, ग्राम सभा, पाँच वर्ष, SC-ST और स्त्रियों (कम-से-कम एक-तिहाई) के लिए आरक्षण, राज्य निर्वाचन और वित्त आयोग, ग्यारहवीं अनुसूची में 29 और बारहवीं में 18 विषय। पेसा (1996)। मूल्यांकन: भागीदारी और स्त्री नेतृत्व बढ़ा, पर धन, कार्य और कर्मचारियों का सीमित हस्तांतरण।
4 of 9 papers. Socialist thinking in the Constitution (Jun 2022) and in the national movement (Dec 2023, Dec 2024); Karachi Resolution (Jun 2022 note); Gandhi's economic thinking (Dec 2025, see topic 5).
Socialist ideas entered the national movement through the impact of the Russian Revolution, Nehru's and Subhas Bose's leadership, and peasant and labour movements. The Karachi Resolution of the Congress (1931) on fundamental rights and economic policy promised civil liberties, equality, a living wage, protection for labour, relief for peasants and state control of key industries. The Congress Socialist Party (1934) of Jayaprakash Narayan, Acharya Narendra Dev and Ram Manohar Lohia pushed for land reform and workers' rights. In the Constitution, socialist goals appear in the Directive Principles (Articles 38, 39 on distribution of resources and equal pay, 41, 43), the Avadi Congress resolution on a "socialistic pattern of society" (1955), planning and the public sector, and the word "socialist" added to the Preamble by the 42nd Amendment (1976). Indian socialism was democratic and mixed, not revolutionary.
रूसी क्रांति, नेहरू और सुभाष बोस के नेतृत्व, तथा किसान और मज़दूर आंदोलनों से समाजवादी विचार राष्ट्रीय आंदोलन में आए। कांग्रेस का कराची प्रस्ताव (1931): नागरिक स्वतंत्रताएँ, समानता, जीवन-निर्वाह मज़दूरी, श्रमिक संरक्षण, किसानों को राहत, प्रमुख उद्योगों पर राज्य नियंत्रण। कांग्रेस समाजवादी पार्टी (1934): जयप्रकाश नारायण, आचार्य नरेंद्र देव, राम मनोहर लोहिया। संविधान में: नीति-निदेशक तत्व (अनुच्छेद 38, 39, 41, 43), अवाडी अधिवेशन (1955) का "समाजवादी ढंग का समाज", नियोजन, सार्वजनिक क्षेत्र, और 42वें संशोधन (1976) से प्रस्तावना में "समाजवादी"। भारतीय समाजवाद लोकतांत्रिक और मिश्रित था।
4 of 9 papers. Interest groups and democracy (Jun 2022; notes Dec 2023, Jun 2025, Dec 2025); new media technology and democracy (Jun 2022); media, public policy and public opinion (Jun 2025); media and governance (Dec 2025).
Interest groups are organised groups that seek to influence policy without contesting elections: business associations (FICCI, CII, ASSOCHAM), trade unions, farmers' organisations, professional bodies, caste and religious associations, and NGOs. They articulate interests, provide information, and mobilise citizens, but unequal resources let powerful groups dominate and can lead to corruption. Media: the press, television and digital platforms inform citizens, set the agenda, shape opinion and policy (through investigative reporting and campaigns), and hold government accountable. New media enables citizen journalism, mobilisation and e-governance. Problems: concentrated ownership, paid news, sensationalism, polarisation, misinformation and pressure on press freedom.
हित समूह: चुनाव लड़े बिना नीति को प्रभावित करने वाले संगठित समूह: FICCI, CII, ASSOCHAM, मज़दूर संघ, किसान संगठन, पेशेवर निकाय, जाति और धार्मिक संगठन, NGO। ये हितों को व्यक्त करते, सूचना देते और नागरिकों को जोड़ते हैं, पर असमान संसाधनों से शक्तिशाली समूह हावी होते हैं। मीडिया: सूचना, एजेंडा, जनमत और नीति निर्माण, जवाबदेही। नया मीडिया: नागरिक पत्रकारिता, लामबंदी, ई-गवर्नेंस। समस्याएँ: स्वामित्व का केंद्रीकरण, पेड न्यूज़, सनसनी, ध्रुवीकरण, भ्रामक सूचना, प्रेस स्वतंत्रता पर दबाव।
2 of 9 papers. Rural and urban migration (Dec 2022 note); reasons for rural–urban migration and its consequences (Dec 2023).
Reasons (push and pull): agrarian distress, landlessness, small holdings, debt, drought and lack of rural non-farm jobs; urban jobs, higher wages, education, health care and aspirations; social networks; and displacement by projects or conflict. Consequences: for cities, growth of the informal sector and slums, pressure on services, and cultural diversity; for villages, remittances, labour shortages, women managing farms, and changing social relations; for migrants, insecure work, poor housing and exclusion from welfare (shown sharply during the 2020 lockdown). Policy responses include portable welfare (One Nation One Ration Card) and urban housing.
कारण (धक्का और खिंचाव): कृषि संकट, भूमिहीनता, छोटी जोतें, कर्ज़, सूखा, ग्रामीण गैर-कृषि रोज़गार का अभाव; नगरीय रोज़गार, अधिक मज़दूरी, शिक्षा, स्वास्थ्य; सामाजिक नेटवर्क; विस्थापन। परिणाम: नगरों में अनौपचारिक क्षेत्र और झुग्गियाँ, सेवाओं पर दबाव; गाँवों में प्रेषित धन, श्रम की कमी, स्त्रियों पर खेती का भार; प्रवासियों के लिए असुरक्षित काम और कल्याण से बहिष्करण (2020 का लॉकडाउन)। नीति: "एक राष्ट्र एक राशन कार्ड", नगरीय आवास।
Questions are summarised in a few words, not quoted. Sources: IGNOU question-paper archive (2022–2024) and ignou.ac.in (2024–2026).
| Session / सत्र | Section I | Section II |
|---|---|---|
| Jun 2022 | New social movements and the marginalised; peasant movements; interest groups; Parliament; development agencies and women's rights | Debate on democracy; socialist thinking in the Constitution; Panchayati Raj and the Ashok Mehta Committee; new media and democracy; notes: Tebhaga, Karachi Resolution |
| Dec 2022 | Democracy and development in the first two decades; class inequality; Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha; notes: judicial review and PIL, federal system; Panchayati Raj and decentralisation | Religious politics; workers' and peasant movements; regional identities; notes: gender and development, rural–urban migration; economy in the era of globalisation |
| Jun 2023 | Models of development; constitutional rights; factors affecting the political system; LPG; federal system | Evolution of decentralisation; notes: political participation, peasant movement; basic minimum needs; regionalisation and economic policies; performance of democracy |
| Dec 2023 | Socialist thinking in the national movement; caste inequalities; political economy approach; judiciary; federal system | Notes: peasant movement, interest groups; development and gender justice; regionalism; rural–urban migration; role of democracy |
| Jun 2024 | Executive and judiciary; democracy and development; caste and inequality; bureaucracy; civil society and new social movements | Notes: political economy approach, gender and development; sustainable development; religious politics; reforms of the 1990s; democracy–development debate |
| Dec 2024 | Socialist thinking in the national movement; post-1967 transformation; political economy theories; notes: democracy as good governance, caste inequalities; sustainable development | Poverty alleviation; judiciary and rights; federal system; notes: human development, identity politics; basic minimum needs |
| Jun 2025 | Political participation; peasant movement; media and policy; notes: identity politics, 74th Amendment; civil society and globalisation | WID approach; regionalisation and economic policies; ethnic politics; notes: Tebhaga, interest groups; democracy–development debate |
| Dec 2025 | Gandhi's economic thinking; post-1967 transformation; political economy of development; parliamentary sovereignty; military in democracy | Indian federalism; notes: judicial review, interest groups; media and governance; identity politics; peasant movements |
| Jun 2026 | Human development approaches; regionalisation; religious politics; decentralisation; political participation | Social inequality; notes: President in Parliament, Ashok Mehta Committee; development and women's rights; ethnicity in the North-East; working-class movements |
Honesty notes. These notes were written from standard sources on Indian politics, not copied from IGNOU blocks; check names and dates against your IGNOU study material if a detail matters. Policies, rankings and recent events change; verify them before quoting. Exam trends describe past papers and do not guarantee future questions.
ईमानदारी नोट: ये नोट्स भारतीय राजनीति के मानक स्रोतों से लिखे गए हैं, IGNOU ब्लॉक से नकल नहीं। नीतियाँ, रैंकिंग और हाल की घटनाएँ बदलती हैं; उद्धृत करने से पहले जाँचें। ट्रेंड पिछले प्रश्नपत्रों का वर्णन है, भविष्य की गारंटी नहीं।
Read your IGNOU blocks for MPS-003 first, then use these notes to decide which topics to revise more. Practise writing at least a few answers in about 500 words, and check the official question papers for the current pattern. More material for this programme is on the MA Political Science (MPS) page, and the official IGNOU site is at ignou.ac.in.